Contingency, Convergence, and Divergence of Teachers’ Questions In Classroom Interactions
Keywords:
classroom interaction, contingency, convergence, divergence, question
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to analyze questioning activity uttered by EFL teachers in terms of contingency, convergence, and divergence in their interactions with students. Data were gathered from six chosen EFL teachers’ questions teaching to college students, hereupon were attentively transcribed and analyzed using Conversation Analysis (CA) principle. The results found that contingency questions were in the form of extending, disputing, transforming, and repeating former utterances through clarification, display, and referential questioning types. Apart from contingency, convergence appearing in teacher questions might flourish students’ responses through display questions. Meanwhile, divergent questions tend to enlarge the talks. The seemingly endless “questioning problems†improvising limitless further research studies therewith, employing more data sources in a different methodology as well as the perspective of analysis are suggested as it directly affects the teaching-learning process.References
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Bilaloğlu, R. G., Arnas, Y. A., & Yaşar, M. (2016). Question Types and Wait-time during Science-related Activities in Turkish Preschools. Teachers and Teaching: Theory and Practice, 23(2), 211–226. https://doi.org/10.1080/13540602.2016.1203773
Boyd, M. P. (2015). Relations Between Teacher Questioning and Student Talk in One Elementary ELL Classroom. Journal of Literacy Research, 47(3), 370–404. https://doi.org/10.1177/1086296X16632451
Boyd, M., & Rubin, D. (2006). How Contingent Questioning Promotes Extended Student Talk : A Function of Display Questions. Journal of Literacy Research, 38(2), 141–169.
Darong, H. C. (2020). Pragmatic Strategy of Indonesian English Teachers in Questioning. JELTL (Journal of English Language Teaching and Linguistics), 5(2), 145–162. https://doi.org/(doi: 10.21462/jeltl.v5i2.398)
Darong, H. C. (2021). Questioning Practice in EFL Classroom Interactions: From type to Syntactical Form. International Journal of Education and Learning, 3(2), 124–134. https://doi.org/10.31763/ijele.v3i2.261
Darong, H. C., Kadarisman, A. E., & Basthomi, Y. (2020). Politeness Markers in Teachers’ Request in Classroom Interactions. Nobel, Journal of Literature and Language Teaching, 11(2), 217–233. https://doi.org/10.15642/NOBEL.2020.11.2.217-233
Darong, H. C., Kadarisman, A. E., Basthomi, Y., Suryati, N., Hidayati, M., & Niman, E. . (2020). What Aspects of Questions Do Teachers Give Attention To? International Journal of Innovation, Creativity and Change, 10(11), 191–208.
Durrleman, S., & Franck, J. (2016). Syntactic Complexity in the Comprehension of Wh- Questions and Relative Clauses in Typical Language Development and Autism. Applied Psycholinguistics, 37(6), 1501–1527. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0142716416000059
Eckerth, J. (2009). Nogitiated Interaction in the L2 Classroom. Language Teaching, 42(1), 109–130. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0261444808005442
Engin, M. (2013). Questioning to Scaffold : An Exploration of Questions in Pre-Service Teacher Training Feedback Sessions. European Journal of Teacher Education, 36(1), 39–54. https://doi.org/10.1080/02619768.2012.678485
Eshghinejad, S., & Moini, M. R. (2016). Politeness Strategies Used in Text Messaging : Pragmatic Competence in an Asymmetrical Power Relation of Teacher – Student, 2016. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244016632288
Gan, Z. (2010). Interaction in Group Oral Assessment: A case Study of Higher- and Lower-Scoring Students. Language Testing, 27(4), 585–602. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265532210364049
Gilson, C. M., Little, C. A., Ruegg, A. N., & Bruce-davis, M. (2014). An Investigation of Elementary Teachers ’ Use of Follow-Up Questions for Students at Different Reading Levels. Journal of Advanced Academics, 25(2), 101–128. https://doi.org/10.1177/1932202X14532257
Hasanuddin, N., & Ciptaningrum, D. S. (2021). Types of English Teachers’ Questioning and Classroom Interaction Affecting Learners’ Motivation in EFL Context. Indonesian Journal of EFL and Linguistics, 6(2), 455–472. https://doi.org/10.21462/ijefl.v6i2.405
Hill, J. B. (2016). Questioning Techniques : A Study of Instructional Practice Questioning Techniques : A Study of Instructional Practice. Peabody Journal of Education, 91(5), 660–671. https://doi.org/10.1080/0161956X.2016.1227190
Hosoda, Y. (2015). Teacher Deployment of ‘ oh ’ in Known-answer Question Sequences. Classroom Discourse, 7(1), 58–84. https://doi.org/10.1080/19463014.2015.1099111
Hu, G., & Duan, Y. (2018). Questioning and Responding in the Classroom : A Cross-Disciplinary Study of the Effects of Instructional Mediums in Academic Subjects at a Chinese University. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 22(1), 1–20.
Irawati, L., Nirmalasari, U. R., & Styati, E. W. (2021). Teacher’s Questioning Strategies Used in the English Speaking Class of Junior High School. Journal of English Language Teaching and Linguistics, 6(2), 359–369. https://doi.org/10.21462/jeltl.v6i2.566
Kelly, S., Olney, A. M., Donnelly, P., Nystrand, M., & Mello, S. K. D. (2018). Automatically Measuring Question Authenticity in Real-World Classrooms. Educational Research, 20(10), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X18785613
Lam, D. M. K. (2018). What Counts as “ Responding � Contingency on PreviousSspeaker Contribution as a Feature of Interactional Competence. Language Testing, 35(3), 377–401. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265532218758126
Lee, A. Y., & Lee, Y. (2006). Respecifying Display Questions : Interactional Resources for Language Teaching. Tesol Quarterly, 40(4), 691–713.
Lee, J., & Kim, K. (2016). Pre-service Teachers ’ Conceptions of Effective Teacher Talk : Their Critical Reflections on a Sample Teacher-student Dialogue. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 93(3), 363–381. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10649-016-9710-y
Luk, J. (2010). Talking to Score : Impression Management in L2 Oral Assessment and the Co- Construction of a Test Discourse Genre. Language Assessment Quarterly, 7(1), 25–31. https://doi.org/10.1080/15434300903473997
May, L. (2011). Interactional Competence in a Paired Speaking Test : Features Salient to Raters. Language Assessment Quarterly, 8(2), 127–145. https://doi.org/10.1080/15434303.2011.565845
Milawati, M. (2017). Teacher Questioning as A Formative Assessment Strategy In EFL Context. Journal of English Language Teaching and Linguistics, 2(2), 117–134. https://doi.org/10.21462/jeltl.v2i2.67
Milawati, M., & Suryati, N. (2019). EFL Teacher’s Oral Questioning: Are Her Questions and Strategies Effective? Dinamika Ilmu, 37–55. https://doi.org/10.21093/di.v19i1.154
Palma, G. (2014). A Classroom View of Negotiation of Meaning with EFL Adult Mexican Pupils. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244014535941
Phillips, E. (2013). A Case Study of Questioning for Reading Comprehension during Guided Reading. Education 3-13: International Journal of Primary, Elementary and Early Years Education, 41(1), 110–120. https://doi.org/10.1080/03004279.2012.710106
Qashoa, S. H. (2013). Effects of Teacher Question Types and Syntactic Sructures on EFL Classroom Iinteraction. The International Journal of Social Sciences, 7(1), 52–62.
Roever, C., & Al-gahtani, S. (2015). The Development of ESL Proficiency and Pragmatic Performance. ELT Journal;, 69(4), 395–404. https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/ccv032
Saito, K., & Hanzawa, K. (2016). The Role of Input in Second Language Oral Ability Development in Foreign Language Classrooms : A Longitudinal Study. Language Teaching Research, 22(4), 398–417. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362168816679030
Salerno, A. S., & Kibler, A. K. (2015). Questions They Ask : Considering Teacher-inquiry Questions Posed by Pre-service English Teachers. Educational Action Research, 23(3), 399–415. https://doi.org/10.1080/09650792.2015.1012174
Şimşek, A., & Gönen, S. I. K. (2020). Raising Awareness of EFL Teachers on Question Types and Pedagogical Goals: An Analysis through Classroom Modes. Language Teaching and Educational Research, 3(1), 56–75. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.35207/later.702179
Tajeddin, Z., & Pezeshki, M. (2014). Acquisition of Politeness Markers in an EFL Context : Impact of Input Enhancement and Output Tasks. RELC Journal, 45(3), 269–286. https://doi.org/10.1177/0033688214555357
Tofade, T., Elsner, J., & Haines, S. T. (2013). Best Practice Strategies for Effective Use of Questions as a Teaching Tool. American Journal OfPharmaceutical Education, 77(7), 1–9.
Walsh, R. L., & Hodge, K. A. (2018). Are we asking the Right Questions ? An Analysis of Research on the Effect of Teachers ’ Questioning on Children ’ s Language during Shared Book Reading with Young Children. Journal of Early Childhood Literacy, 18(2), 264–294. https://doi.org/10.1177/1468798416659124
Wang, W. (2020). Grammatical Conformity in Question-answer Sequences: The Case of Meiyou in Mandarin Conversation. Doscourse Studies, 22(5), 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461445620916371
Wright, B. M. (2016). Display and Referential Questions : Effects on Student Responses. Nordic Journal of English Studies 15(4):160-189., 15(4), 160–189.
Yap, T. S., & Pillai, S. (2017). Intonation Patterns of Questions in Malaysian English Intonation Patterns of Questions in Malaysian English. Asian Englishes, 20(3), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/13488678.2017.1405707
Yazdanfar, S., & Bonyadi, A. (2016). Request Strategies in Everyday Interactions of Persian and English Speakers. SAGE Open, (October-December), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244016679473
Zhu, W. (2012). Polite Requestive Strategies in Emails : An Investigation of Pragmatic Competence of Chinese EFL Learners. RELC Journal, 43(2), 217–238. https://doi.org/10.1177/0033688212449936
Bilaloğlu, R. G., Arnas, Y. A., & Yaşar, M. (2016). Question Types and Wait-time during Science-related Activities in Turkish Preschools. Teachers and Teaching: Theory and Practice, 23(2), 211–226. https://doi.org/10.1080/13540602.2016.1203773
Boyd, M. P. (2015). Relations Between Teacher Questioning and Student Talk in One Elementary ELL Classroom. Journal of Literacy Research, 47(3), 370–404. https://doi.org/10.1177/1086296X16632451
Boyd, M., & Rubin, D. (2006). How Contingent Questioning Promotes Extended Student Talk : A Function of Display Questions. Journal of Literacy Research, 38(2), 141–169.
Darong, H. C. (2020). Pragmatic Strategy of Indonesian English Teachers in Questioning. JELTL (Journal of English Language Teaching and Linguistics), 5(2), 145–162. https://doi.org/(doi: 10.21462/jeltl.v5i2.398)
Darong, H. C. (2021). Questioning Practice in EFL Classroom Interactions: From type to Syntactical Form. International Journal of Education and Learning, 3(2), 124–134. https://doi.org/10.31763/ijele.v3i2.261
Darong, H. C., Kadarisman, A. E., & Basthomi, Y. (2020). Politeness Markers in Teachers’ Request in Classroom Interactions. Nobel, Journal of Literature and Language Teaching, 11(2), 217–233. https://doi.org/10.15642/NOBEL.2020.11.2.217-233
Darong, H. C., Kadarisman, A. E., Basthomi, Y., Suryati, N., Hidayati, M., & Niman, E. . (2020). What Aspects of Questions Do Teachers Give Attention To? International Journal of Innovation, Creativity and Change, 10(11), 191–208.
Durrleman, S., & Franck, J. (2016). Syntactic Complexity in the Comprehension of Wh- Questions and Relative Clauses in Typical Language Development and Autism. Applied Psycholinguistics, 37(6), 1501–1527. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0142716416000059
Eckerth, J. (2009). Nogitiated Interaction in the L2 Classroom. Language Teaching, 42(1), 109–130. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0261444808005442
Engin, M. (2013). Questioning to Scaffold : An Exploration of Questions in Pre-Service Teacher Training Feedback Sessions. European Journal of Teacher Education, 36(1), 39–54. https://doi.org/10.1080/02619768.2012.678485
Eshghinejad, S., & Moini, M. R. (2016). Politeness Strategies Used in Text Messaging : Pragmatic Competence in an Asymmetrical Power Relation of Teacher – Student, 2016. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244016632288
Gan, Z. (2010). Interaction in Group Oral Assessment: A case Study of Higher- and Lower-Scoring Students. Language Testing, 27(4), 585–602. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265532210364049
Gilson, C. M., Little, C. A., Ruegg, A. N., & Bruce-davis, M. (2014). An Investigation of Elementary Teachers ’ Use of Follow-Up Questions for Students at Different Reading Levels. Journal of Advanced Academics, 25(2), 101–128. https://doi.org/10.1177/1932202X14532257
Hasanuddin, N., & Ciptaningrum, D. S. (2021). Types of English Teachers’ Questioning and Classroom Interaction Affecting Learners’ Motivation in EFL Context. Indonesian Journal of EFL and Linguistics, 6(2), 455–472. https://doi.org/10.21462/ijefl.v6i2.405
Hill, J. B. (2016). Questioning Techniques : A Study of Instructional Practice Questioning Techniques : A Study of Instructional Practice. Peabody Journal of Education, 91(5), 660–671. https://doi.org/10.1080/0161956X.2016.1227190
Hosoda, Y. (2015). Teacher Deployment of ‘ oh ’ in Known-answer Question Sequences. Classroom Discourse, 7(1), 58–84. https://doi.org/10.1080/19463014.2015.1099111
Hu, G., & Duan, Y. (2018). Questioning and Responding in the Classroom : A Cross-Disciplinary Study of the Effects of Instructional Mediums in Academic Subjects at a Chinese University. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 22(1), 1–20.
Irawati, L., Nirmalasari, U. R., & Styati, E. W. (2021). Teacher’s Questioning Strategies Used in the English Speaking Class of Junior High School. Journal of English Language Teaching and Linguistics, 6(2), 359–369. https://doi.org/10.21462/jeltl.v6i2.566
Kelly, S., Olney, A. M., Donnelly, P., Nystrand, M., & Mello, S. K. D. (2018). Automatically Measuring Question Authenticity in Real-World Classrooms. Educational Research, 20(10), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X18785613
Lam, D. M. K. (2018). What Counts as “ Responding � Contingency on PreviousSspeaker Contribution as a Feature of Interactional Competence. Language Testing, 35(3), 377–401. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265532218758126
Lee, A. Y., & Lee, Y. (2006). Respecifying Display Questions : Interactional Resources for Language Teaching. Tesol Quarterly, 40(4), 691–713.
Lee, J., & Kim, K. (2016). Pre-service Teachers ’ Conceptions of Effective Teacher Talk : Their Critical Reflections on a Sample Teacher-student Dialogue. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 93(3), 363–381. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10649-016-9710-y
Luk, J. (2010). Talking to Score : Impression Management in L2 Oral Assessment and the Co- Construction of a Test Discourse Genre. Language Assessment Quarterly, 7(1), 25–31. https://doi.org/10.1080/15434300903473997
May, L. (2011). Interactional Competence in a Paired Speaking Test : Features Salient to Raters. Language Assessment Quarterly, 8(2), 127–145. https://doi.org/10.1080/15434303.2011.565845
Milawati, M. (2017). Teacher Questioning as A Formative Assessment Strategy In EFL Context. Journal of English Language Teaching and Linguistics, 2(2), 117–134. https://doi.org/10.21462/jeltl.v2i2.67
Milawati, M., & Suryati, N. (2019). EFL Teacher’s Oral Questioning: Are Her Questions and Strategies Effective? Dinamika Ilmu, 37–55. https://doi.org/10.21093/di.v19i1.154
Palma, G. (2014). A Classroom View of Negotiation of Meaning with EFL Adult Mexican Pupils. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244014535941
Phillips, E. (2013). A Case Study of Questioning for Reading Comprehension during Guided Reading. Education 3-13: International Journal of Primary, Elementary and Early Years Education, 41(1), 110–120. https://doi.org/10.1080/03004279.2012.710106
Qashoa, S. H. (2013). Effects of Teacher Question Types and Syntactic Sructures on EFL Classroom Iinteraction. The International Journal of Social Sciences, 7(1), 52–62.
Roever, C., & Al-gahtani, S. (2015). The Development of ESL Proficiency and Pragmatic Performance. ELT Journal;, 69(4), 395–404. https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/ccv032
Saito, K., & Hanzawa, K. (2016). The Role of Input in Second Language Oral Ability Development in Foreign Language Classrooms : A Longitudinal Study. Language Teaching Research, 22(4), 398–417. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362168816679030
Salerno, A. S., & Kibler, A. K. (2015). Questions They Ask : Considering Teacher-inquiry Questions Posed by Pre-service English Teachers. Educational Action Research, 23(3), 399–415. https://doi.org/10.1080/09650792.2015.1012174
Şimşek, A., & Gönen, S. I. K. (2020). Raising Awareness of EFL Teachers on Question Types and Pedagogical Goals: An Analysis through Classroom Modes. Language Teaching and Educational Research, 3(1), 56–75. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.35207/later.702179
Tajeddin, Z., & Pezeshki, M. (2014). Acquisition of Politeness Markers in an EFL Context : Impact of Input Enhancement and Output Tasks. RELC Journal, 45(3), 269–286. https://doi.org/10.1177/0033688214555357
Tofade, T., Elsner, J., & Haines, S. T. (2013). Best Practice Strategies for Effective Use of Questions as a Teaching Tool. American Journal OfPharmaceutical Education, 77(7), 1–9.
Walsh, R. L., & Hodge, K. A. (2018). Are we asking the Right Questions ? An Analysis of Research on the Effect of Teachers ’ Questioning on Children ’ s Language during Shared Book Reading with Young Children. Journal of Early Childhood Literacy, 18(2), 264–294. https://doi.org/10.1177/1468798416659124
Wang, W. (2020). Grammatical Conformity in Question-answer Sequences: The Case of Meiyou in Mandarin Conversation. Doscourse Studies, 22(5), 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461445620916371
Wright, B. M. (2016). Display and Referential Questions : Effects on Student Responses. Nordic Journal of English Studies 15(4):160-189., 15(4), 160–189.
Yap, T. S., & Pillai, S. (2017). Intonation Patterns of Questions in Malaysian English Intonation Patterns of Questions in Malaysian English. Asian Englishes, 20(3), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/13488678.2017.1405707
Yazdanfar, S., & Bonyadi, A. (2016). Request Strategies in Everyday Interactions of Persian and English Speakers. SAGE Open, (October-December), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244016679473
Zhu, W. (2012). Polite Requestive Strategies in Emails : An Investigation of Pragmatic Competence of Chinese EFL Learners. RELC Journal, 43(2), 217–238. https://doi.org/10.1177/0033688212449936
Published
2022-11-24
How to Cite
Darong, H. (2022). Contingency, Convergence, and Divergence of Teachers’ Questions In Classroom Interactions. Indonesian Journal of EFL and Linguistics, 7(2), 265-278. https://doi.org/10.21462/ijefl.v7i2.508
Section
Articles
