Gender and Academic Level Differences in Artificial Intelligence Usage for Academic Writing in Indonesian Higher Education
Keywords:
AI chatbots, academic writing, higher education, gender, academic level, East Kalimantan
Abstract
The rapid spread of AI chatbots has begun to reshape how university students plan, draft, revise, and evaluate academic writing. Although recent studies have examined students’ perceptions of generative AI in higher education, less is known about how students in regional Indonesian universities understand and use these tools, particularly when viewed across gender, age, and academic level. This study investigated the perceptions and reported use of AI chatbots among 267 students from four universities in East Kalimantan. A mixed-method survey design was used. Quantitative responses were analyzed through descriptive statistics and Spearman’s rho correlation, while open-ended responses were coded to identify the AI tools students reported using for academic writing. The results show that AI use was widespread, with 94.76% of respondents indicating that they had used AI in academic writing. Students generally held positive views of AI chatbots, especially for improving writing effectiveness, language quality, and the revision process. At the same time, their responses revealed continuing ethical and pedagogical uncertainty, particularly around learning, authorship, and the boundary between assistance and cheating. Correlation analysis showed weak relationships between students’ perceptions and gender, age, or semester, suggesting that AI chatbot use was broadly shared across demographic groups. The study offers regional evidence from Indonesian higher education and underscores the need for clearer AI literacy instruction, responsible-use guidelines, and process-based academic writing pedagogy.
References
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Kohnke, L., Moorhouse, B. L., & Zou, D. (2023). ChatGPT for language teaching and learning. RELC Journal, 54(2), 537-550. https://doi.org/10.1177/00336882231162868
Lo, C. K. (2023). What is the impact of ChatGPT on education? A rapid review of the literature. Education Sciences, 13(4), Article 410. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci13040410
Long, D., & Magerko, B. (2020). What is AI literacy? Competencies and design considerations. Proceedings of the 2020 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1145/3313831.3376727
Mahapatra, S. (2024). Impact of ChatGPT on ESL students' academic writing skills: A mixed methods intervention study. Smart Learning Environments, 11, Article 9. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40561-024-00295-9
Meyer, J. G., Urbanowicz, R. J., Martin, P. C. N., O'Connor, K., Li, R., Peng, P.-C., Bright, T. J., Tatonetti, N., Won, K. J., Gonzalez-Hernandez, G., & Moore, J. H. (2023). ChatGPT and large language models in academia: Opportunities and challenges. BioData Mining, 16, Article 20. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13040-023-00339-9
Moorhouse, B. L., Yeo, M. A., & Wan, Y. (2023). Generative AI tools and assessment: Guidelines of the world's top-ranking universities. Computers and Education Open, 5, Article 100151. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeo.2023.100151
Ng, D. T. K., Leung, J. K. L., Chu, S. K. W., & Qiao, M. S. (2021). Conceptualizing AI literacy: An exploratory review. Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence, 2, Article 100041. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeai.2021.100041
Perkins, M. (2023). Academic integrity considerations of AI large language models in the post-pandemic era: ChatGPT and beyond. Journal of University Teaching and Learning Practice, 20(2), Article 7. https://doi.org/10.53761/1.20.02.07
Rudolph, J., Tan, S., & Tan, S. (2023). ChatGPT: Bullshit spewer or the end of traditional assessments in higher education? Journal of Applied Learning and Teaching, 6(1), 342-363. https://doi.org/10.37074/jalt.2023.6.1.9
Schei, O. M., Mogelvang, A., & Ludvigsen, K. (2024). Perceptions and use of AI chatbots among students in higher education: A scoping review of empirical studies. Education Sciences, 14(8), Article 922. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci14080922
Stöhr, C., Ou, A. W., & Malmström, H. (2024). Perceptions and usage of AI chatbots among students in higher education across genders, academic levels and fields of study. Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence, 7, Article 100259. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeai.2024.100259
Strzelecki, A. (2024). Students' acceptance of ChatGPT in higher education: An extended unified theory of acceptance and use of technology. Innovative Higher Education, 49(2), 223-245. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10755-023-09686-1
Tlili, A., Shehata, B., Adarkwah, M. A., Bozkurt, A., Hickey, D. T., Huang, R., & Agyemang, B. (2023). What if the devil is my guardian angel: ChatGPT as a case study of using chatbots in education. Smart Learning Environments, 10, Article 15. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40561-023-00237-x
Warschauer, M., Tseng, W., Yim, S., Webster, T., Jacob, S., Du, Q., & Tate, T. (2023). The affordances and contradictions of AI-generated text for writers of English as a second or foreign language. Journal of Second Language Writing, 62, Article 101071. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jslw.2023.101071
Zawacki-Richter, O., Marin, V. I., Bond, M., & Gouverneur, F. (2019). Systematic review of research on artificial intelligence applications in higher education - where are the educators? International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 16, Article 39. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-019-0171-0
Barrot, J. S. (2023). Using ChatGPT for second language writing: Pitfalls and potentials. Assessing Writing, 57, Article 100745. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asw.2023.100745
Baig, M. I., Shuib, L., & Yadegaridehkordi, E. (2024). ChatGPT in higher education: A systematic literature review and research agenda. Education and Information Technologies. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-024-12723-7
Bittle, K., & El-Gayar, O. (2025). Generative AI and academic integrity in higher education: A systematic review and research agenda. Information, 16(4), Article 296. https://doi.org/10.3390/info16040296
Chan, C. K. Y., & Hu, W. (2023). Students' voices on generative AI: Perceptions, benefits, and challenges in higher education. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 20, Article 43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-023-00411-8
Chauncey, S. A., & McKenna, H. P. (2023). A framework and exemplars for ethical and responsible use of AI chatbot technology to support teaching and learning. Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence, 5, Article 100182. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeai.2023.100182
Chiu, T. K. F. (2024). Future research recommendations for transforming higher education with generative AI. Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence, 6, Article 100197.
Cotton, D. R. E., Cotton, P. A., & Shipway, J. R. (2024). Chatting and cheating: Ensuring academic integrity in the era of ChatGPT. Innovations in Education and Teaching International, 61(2), 228-239. https://doi.org/10.1080/14703297.2023.2190148
Crompton, H., & Burke, D. (2023). Artificial intelligence in higher education: The state of the field. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 20, Article 22. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-023-00392-8
Dakakni, D., & Safa, N. (2023). Artificial intelligence in the L2 classroom: Implications and challenges on ethics and equity in higher education. Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence, 5, Article 100179. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeai.2023.100179
Dwivedi, Y. K., Kshetri, N., Hughes, L., Slade, E. L., Jeyaraj, A., Kar, A. K., Baabdullah, A. M., Koohang, A., Raghavan, V., Ahuja, M., Albanna, H., Albashrawi, M. A., Al-Busaidi, A. S., Balakrishnan, J., Barlette, Y., Basu, S., Bose, I., Brooks, L., Buhalis, D., ... Wright, R. (2023). Opinion paper: 'So what if ChatGPT wrote it?' Multidisciplinary perspectives on opportunities, challenges and implications of generative conversational AI for research, practice and policy. International Journal of Information Management, 71, Article 102642. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2023.102642
Farrokhnia, M., Banihashem, S. K., Noroozi, O., & Wals, A. (2024). A SWOT analysis of ChatGPT: Implications for educational practice and research. Innovations in Education and Teaching International, 61(3), 460-474. https://doi.org/10.1080/14703297.2023.2195846
Grassini, S., Aasen, M. L., & Mogelvang, A. (2024). Understanding university students' acceptance of ChatGPT: Insights from the UTAUT2 model. Applied Artificial Intelligence, 38(1), Article 2371168. https://doi.org/10.1080/08839514.2024.2371168
Habibi, A., Muhaimin, M., Danibao, B. K., Wibowo, Y. G., Wahyuni, S., & Octavia, A. (2023). ChatGPT in higher education learning: Acceptance and use. Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence, 5, Article 100190. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeai.2023.100190
Hornberger, M., Bewersdorff, A., & Nerdel, C. (2023). What do university students know about artificial intelligence? Development and validation of an AI literacy test. Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence, 5, Article 100165. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeai.2023.100165
Jin, Y., Yan, L., Echeverria, V., Gaševi?, D., & Martinez-Maldonado, R. (2025). Generative AI in higher education: A global perspective of institutional adoption policies and guidelines. Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence, 8, Article 100348.
Kasneci, E., Seßler, K., Küchemann, S., Bannert, M., Dementieva, D., Fischer, F., Gasser, U., Groh, G., Günnemann, S., Hüllermeier, E., Krusche, S., Kutyniok, G., Michaeli, T., Nerdel, C., Pfeffer, J., Poquet, O., Sailer, M., Schmidt, A., Seidel, T., Stadler, M., Weller, J., Kuhn, J., & Kasneci, G. (2023). ChatGPT for good? On opportunities and challenges of large language models for education. Learning and Individual Differences, 103, Article 102274. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2023.102274
Kohnke, L., Moorhouse, B. L., & Zou, D. (2023). ChatGPT for language teaching and learning. RELC Journal, 54(2), 537-550. https://doi.org/10.1177/00336882231162868
Lo, C. K. (2023). What is the impact of ChatGPT on education? A rapid review of the literature. Education Sciences, 13(4), Article 410. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci13040410
Long, D., & Magerko, B. (2020). What is AI literacy? Competencies and design considerations. Proceedings of the 2020 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1145/3313831.3376727
Mahapatra, S. (2024). Impact of ChatGPT on ESL students' academic writing skills: A mixed methods intervention study. Smart Learning Environments, 11, Article 9. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40561-024-00295-9
Meyer, J. G., Urbanowicz, R. J., Martin, P. C. N., O'Connor, K., Li, R., Peng, P.-C., Bright, T. J., Tatonetti, N., Won, K. J., Gonzalez-Hernandez, G., & Moore, J. H. (2023). ChatGPT and large language models in academia: Opportunities and challenges. BioData Mining, 16, Article 20. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13040-023-00339-9
Moorhouse, B. L., Yeo, M. A., & Wan, Y. (2023). Generative AI tools and assessment: Guidelines of the world's top-ranking universities. Computers and Education Open, 5, Article 100151. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeo.2023.100151
Ng, D. T. K., Leung, J. K. L., Chu, S. K. W., & Qiao, M. S. (2021). Conceptualizing AI literacy: An exploratory review. Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence, 2, Article 100041. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeai.2021.100041
Perkins, M. (2023). Academic integrity considerations of AI large language models in the post-pandemic era: ChatGPT and beyond. Journal of University Teaching and Learning Practice, 20(2), Article 7. https://doi.org/10.53761/1.20.02.07
Rudolph, J., Tan, S., & Tan, S. (2023). ChatGPT: Bullshit spewer or the end of traditional assessments in higher education? Journal of Applied Learning and Teaching, 6(1), 342-363. https://doi.org/10.37074/jalt.2023.6.1.9
Schei, O. M., Mogelvang, A., & Ludvigsen, K. (2024). Perceptions and use of AI chatbots among students in higher education: A scoping review of empirical studies. Education Sciences, 14(8), Article 922. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci14080922
Stöhr, C., Ou, A. W., & Malmström, H. (2024). Perceptions and usage of AI chatbots among students in higher education across genders, academic levels and fields of study. Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence, 7, Article 100259. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeai.2024.100259
Strzelecki, A. (2024). Students' acceptance of ChatGPT in higher education: An extended unified theory of acceptance and use of technology. Innovative Higher Education, 49(2), 223-245. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10755-023-09686-1
Tlili, A., Shehata, B., Adarkwah, M. A., Bozkurt, A., Hickey, D. T., Huang, R., & Agyemang, B. (2023). What if the devil is my guardian angel: ChatGPT as a case study of using chatbots in education. Smart Learning Environments, 10, Article 15. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40561-023-00237-x
Warschauer, M., Tseng, W., Yim, S., Webster, T., Jacob, S., Du, Q., & Tate, T. (2023). The affordances and contradictions of AI-generated text for writers of English as a second or foreign language. Journal of Second Language Writing, 62, Article 101071. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jslw.2023.101071
Zawacki-Richter, O., Marin, V. I., Bond, M., & Gouverneur, F. (2019). Systematic review of research on artificial intelligence applications in higher education - where are the educators? International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 16, Article 39. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-019-0171-0
Published
2026-10-22
How to Cite
Amat, R., Ariyanti, A., Sukaena, S., & Veronika, A. (2026). Gender and Academic Level Differences in Artificial Intelligence Usage for Academic Writing in Indonesian Higher Education. Indonesian Journal of EFL and Linguistics, 11(2), 295-310. https://doi.org/10.21462/ijefl.v11i2.1054
Section
Articles
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